The book The 4 Pillars of Critical Thinking, written by Patrik Ian Meyer and published in 2023, deals with one of the most important and challenging skills for people and workers in the 21st century: critical thinking.
For those who weren't sure, critical thinking is not a polite way of saying "criticism." There is a connection between the terms, but it's only partial.
Meyer defines critical thinking as a reflective process for analyzing and synthesizing information and sources logically, drawing conclusions, and solving problems. Critical thinking is our ability to raise doubts about information or people (including ourselves) in a structured analysis process that examines the sources, beliefs, and assumptions on which we rely and to act better based on this analysis.
Critical thinking helps us develop creative thinking, analyze situations with an open mind, understand and manage relationships, improve communication, and make better decisions and problem-solving.
Meyer proposes four levels for developing this skill:
Foundations
The Process
Improving and Strengthening the Skill
Application in Life Circles
No one doesn't need this; no one would benefit from improving their analytical and decision-making abilities.
Foundations
Models
Proximate analysis and root-cause analysis
Two techniques that aid in problem-solving differ from each other:
Proximate analysis
A short-term technique that relies on identifying symptoms and causes visible on the surface and a probability-based assessment of the nature of the problem and its solution. Example: A police officer's decision regarding who is at fault in a car accident involving two drivers is based on surface-level facts.
Root-cause analysis
A medium to long-term technique in which "why?" is repeatedly asked to find the root of the problem and a long-term and thorough solution.
Understanding both techniques and their differences allows for an informed choice of which is preferable in each situation. In cases where it's required, a possible combination of both (by identifying more common causes using the first method and deepening the search for a solution using the second method) is also possible.
Cognitive biases
Deviation in thought processes due to brain operating methods designed to save mental resources and enable quick decision-making. They are divided into two types:
Heuristics
Mental shortcuts in decision-making processes. For example: Decision-making favors available information.
Biases
Beliefs or emotions that guide our choices. For example, we analyze phenomena according to our perceptions and beliefs, with a hidden desire to confirm existing assumptions.
The risks of cognitive biases:
This can lead to systematic human errors.
Affect memory that may not faithfully represent reality.
Influence our perceptions, beliefs, expectations, and values.
Hanlon's Razor
Attribution of others' mistakes. When we analyze others' errors, we can attribute them to malicious intent, which can also be attributed to external circumstances, misunderstanding, or ignorance. Hanlon encourages us to adopt this approach, which offers grace to others and does not ascribe blame or ill intentions to them.
[It should be noted that there is criticism of Hanlon's perspective, yet it's worth knowing about it.]
Skills
The skills required of us to develop critical thinking ability include:
Observation
The ability to notice, listen, record, and document carefully what is seen, heard, or experienced.
It is important for improving understanding and identifying patterns and connections.
Analysis
Breaking down complex problems into smaller, more manageable parts or determining the relationship between different pieces of information.
Enables objective evaluation of information and logical connections.
Interpretation
Analyzing information that sheds light on a particular topic, understanding a text or expression by examining the meaning of its components while using logic, inference, and relying on prior knowledge.
Identifying critical aspects and central ideas in the information being examined is essential.
Inference
Concluding without direct evidence, relying on thought patterns and understanding.
Helps understand complex situations, relationships, and ideas under limited information and data conditions.
Evaluation
Judging facts, opinions, or claims concerning validity, accuracy, and worthiness.
The application requires a thoughtful and detailed approach in which one understands the context of the information, reads, analyzes, summarizes, synthesizes, and reaches a well-founded opinion about it.
Communication
The ability to present well-founded arguments supporting an opinion or position to others.
It enables the free exchange of ideas, clear and accurate explanation of one's ideas, and listening to and considering the ideas of others.
Problem-Solving
Identifying and defining problems, creating potential responses, considering and evaluating them, choosing the most effective response, and implementing it.
The most common problem-solving techniques are trial and error, brainstorming, and systematic solving.
The Process
The critical thinking process includes several stages. There is some overlap in the description between the stages, but the whole represents the essential components of the process:
Identifying the problem or issue
Close examination of the facts, conditions, and situations that could have raised the problem and reviewing its possible causes.
Sub-stages:
Data can be collected using various methods such as interviews, investigations, or surveys.
Examining the implications of the problem and asking "why?" allows one to get to the root of the matter.
Defining measurable goals for solving the problem.
Helper questions:
What is the focus of the problem? What caused it? What are its implications? Who is affected? Are there barriers to a successful solution? What resources are needed for the solution? What are the alternatives for solving it?
Research, opinions, and arguments
Research and data collection.
Sub-stages:
Identifying reliable and quality sources of information that can be relied upon for the given issue. It includes two groups: primary, where the information is directly related to the issue, and secondary, where supporting information (books, encyclopedias, etc.) is found. The first group supports understanding what happened, and the second offers context: analysis and interpretation.
Collecting, organizing, and analyzing the information.
Evaluating the quality of sources (this evaluation itself requires critical thinking), including verifying the balance between sources supporting different opinions, without taking a one-sided stance.
Analyzing arguments
Identifying, analyzing, and evaluating alternatives and their validity.
Sub-stages:
Recognizing biases and assumptions about the facts, opinions, and arguments used.
Examining the evidence's reliability, quality, and relevance in presenting opinions and arguments.
Identifying Possible Flaws in Reasoning
Identifying problematic basic assumptions and biases.
Sub-stages:
Defining the basic assumptions on which we relied.
Examining the validity of the logical inference that led to opinions and arguments.
Identifying biases that may have influenced a possible error in judgment.
Mayer classifies biases of culture, religion, race, gender, and economic efficiency.
For a deeper understanding of the concept of cognitive biases, it is recommended to read the book "Cloud of Possibilities" (M.L.)
Tools for avoiding incorrect assumptions and biases:
High awareness of critical thinking and structured problem-solving processes while performing them
Reflective thinking
Asking proactive questions about ideas that are raised
Humility and open-minded thinking.
Data Evaluation
Examining the significance and relevance of the collected evidence and information about the issue being investigated.
Examining components of:
Reliability: source from a reliable database; accurate, representative information (to the overall data population) collected using systematic tools.
Significance and relevance: to the subject matter being examined.
Logical inferential connection between the evidence and the claims and opinions presented.
Giving appropriate weight to relevant sources in a way that represents conflicting data.
Weight assignment will be based on a structured methodology such as Bayes' theorem, Sir Francis Bacon's methodology, or Dempster-Shafer’s theory.
Inference and Response
Synthesis and re-examination of the data considering all information received or new evidence added.
Creating a response to the world always relies on who we are and our current state of mind, but decision-making in a critical thinking-based process will be based on the following structured sub-stages:
Identifying the problem and why it's essential to address it
Defining success criteria
Brainstorming to generate alternatives
Evaluating responses and making a choice
Deriving an action plan for implementation.
Improving and Strengthening the Skill
Critical thinking is not a skill one either has or doesn't have. Even if there are foundations, and one knows how to perform the process according to the explanations above, there is always room for further strengthening the skill and improving our ability for critical thinking. Essential tools that can help:
Self-reflection
Reflectivity on the critical thinking process.
It is recommended to reflect on the following different aspects of thinking:
Logic and drawing conclusions
Self-awareness of emotions, thoughts, and behaviors and their impact on others
Awareness of biases.
Tools that assist reflection include journaling, examining past critical thinking processes, analysis based on Mind Mapping (visualization of the process), and more.
Diverse perspectives
Examining an issue from varying viewpoints allows for a better understanding of the problem, the solution, and the process. It's not always easy to implement different perspectives, and it's worthwhile to be aware of the difficulty and to use structured tools, such as:
Active listening to others and their ideas
Self-nullification and examining how it affects understanding.
Practice
Practicing tools that sharpen critical thinking. Examples:
Puzzles
Number-based riddles and games (Sudoku) or letter-based ones (crosswords)
Critical reading is where one actively looks for gaps by asking questions about the content
Taking part in discussions and debate meetings
Solving practical problems while asking questions related to why? And how?
Application in Life Circles
Critical thinking is not limited to one context.
It is relevant to:
Personal health and well-being
Work
Education and learning
Financial management
Interpersonal relationships
And more.
Summary
Critical thinking is an important skill for everyone. This book (or its summary) assumes that probably everyone who picks it up believes in it.
But we hope that by the end of the reading, people understand that everyone has critical thinking skills to some degree, and by using the stages and tools suggested below, anyone can improve their skill.
It's worth it. Critical thinking is ultimately a tool for life - a tool for improving our personal and shared future.
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